Cubism (Africa)

Introduction

Cubism was a modern art movement that emerged around 1907 in Paris, France. Four important features of cubism are the application of multiple perspectives, the use of geometric shapes, a monochromatic color palette and a flat image layer. Cubism's new treatment of form, color, and perspective marked a shift from the existing conventions of European modernist painting. Cubism redesigned the treatment of form by rejecting the traditions of perspective, modeling, and prediction. The result of this method was a strongly abstract composition that represented the subject from all angles or with overlapping image layers. The Cubists intended to depict the entire structure of objects and people in their paintings without using techniques such as perspective or graded shading to appear realistic. They wanted to show their subjects as they really were rather than create an illusion of an object or person. The use of linear perspective and the illusion of depth favored by the Renaissance movement was in stark contrast to the two-dimensional perspective that the Cubists worked to define. Cubist artists depicted their subjects from multiple perspectives simultaneously, trying to represent each angle of the subject on the flat surface of a canvas and within a single image plane. Cube-like images, as well as other geometric forms such as cones, spheres, and cylinders often appear in early cubist paintings and again later in the movement in cubist sculptures. The Cubists felt that they could depict the form of a subject more accurately by using geometric shapes to represent its various sides and angles. The use of geometric shapes replaced techniques such as perspective and shading, which also emphasized the two-dimensional flatness of the canvas. Bright colors were not commonly used in cubist paintings until much later in the movement. Early cubist painters preferred tones of muted gray, black, and ocher over bold colors such as green or pink. A simplified color scheme created greater emphasis on the structure and form of the theme. The image layer is commonly known as the surface of the canvas. However, before Cubism, illusory painting treated the plane of the image as a window into a scene, where subjects were depicted figuratively and painters created the illusion of reality within the work. Cubists rejected the illusion and believed that all elements of a subject should be visible at the level of the painting's image. Cubists also regarded it as a more honest depiction of reality compared to their more traditional or "academic" predecessors (Meleca, 4 Characteristics of Cubism and Why They Are Important – Artlex).

History

In the late nineteenth century, the colonization of the western and northern coasts of Africa by France as part of Europe's "Struggle for Africa" helped spread African art in Paris. The "Struggle for Africa" that occurred between 1876 and 1912 was the annexation and division of the continent of Africa among seven nations of Europe: Belgium, France, Italy, Germany, Portugal, Spain and the United Kingdom (Nadeen). French colonies included French Sudan, Senegal, Côte d'Ivoire, Dahomey, and Niger. Looted artifacts from these lands were transported and not adequately displayed in the notoriously obscure and rundown museum galleries in Paris and the British Museum in London (‘How Much Does Picasso Owe to African Art?’). After colonial expeditions, some of Africa's most valuable and sacred artifacts were brought to Europe. Countless original masks and sculptures were widely traded and sold among Western societies. African copies of these artifacts became so popular during this period that they would even replace some Greco-Roman antiquities that adorned the studios of some academic artists. This rapid dissemination allowed European artists to come into contact with African art and its unprecedented aesthetics (‘African Art’).

Arts

The expeditions and travels of the French elite in search of wealth and adventure also helped bring African art to Paris. Many homes, shops and museums have showcased these newly discovered treasures. One such museum was the Museum of Ethnography of Trocadero. The Museum of Ethnography of Trocadero (now called the Musée de l'Homme) was built in conjunction with the Paris World's Fair in 1878. At the World's Fair, the public was able to see for the first time "exotic" finds from Africa, America and the Ocean Islands. This exhibition was so popular that it was decided that the Trocadero Museum of Ethnography would be built to house the collection (Goldwater 7). Pablo Picasso would later see this exhibit in the Trocadero museum and it would have a profound influence on him and prove vital to his art. Exhibitions such as those found at the Musee d' Ethnographie du Trocadero presented African art as curiosity or functional objects, not as works of aesthetic value. European scholars and artists were reluctant to accept African art as "fine arts" instead of being referred to as "primitive." It was a general belief among these scholars that African art was that of a primitive people, a sub-evolutionary group: the art of Africa and other non-European nations had "primary" elements, elements from which Western art had evolved. The term primitivism as applied to African art (and non-classical art), was initially positive although it had negative connotations outside the art world. "It comes from the word primitif, a nineteenth-century French art history word used in reference to some Italian and Flemish painters of the late medieval and early Renaissance. Eventually the term was applied to African traditional art." It was used to describe the expression of uninhibited naivety and freedom. Although there was a reluctance to accept a different way of interpreting and rendering the natural world, artists who were later seduced by "primitive" art embraced this style of expression as a means of freeing themselves from the constraints of their own formal art theories. The two styles of African sculpture that had influenced Les Demoiselles d'Avignon were bronze covered reliquary figures by the Bakota people (aka Kota) of the African state of Gabon (Figure 8) and masks by the Dan people from Côte d'Ivoire. This indicated that Picasso had indeed studied these masks and to some extent imitated their style. The Bakota sculpture also influenced the shape and shading of faces, giving them extravagant oval forms. The shape of the forehead and eyes and a simple ear suggest similarities with Bakota sculptures. It is obvious that the characteristic bold shape of the nose, eyes and shadow found in the Demoiselles probably comes from African art (Nadeen).  The cubist movement gained widespread fame in the world, and artists of this school, including Picasso, became very famous and well-known thanks to the deep philosophy behind it, but few people know that the foundations of cubism were built by Africans. Especially the old continent itself, which is considered the initiator of this movement, does not admit it. By the age of 26, Picasso was painting with the popular art styles of that time, including expressionism, but after that he was looking for a new and special source of inspiration. He found his lost in African art. Picasso became interested in African art after seeing an African sculpture at a friend's house and then visiting the Trocadero Museum, which he said had a great influence on the development of his art. Picasso believed that African artists created their works not to convey beauty but for a magical and sacred purpose, and they intend to create a mediator between themselves and the mysterious hostile forces that surround them by creating these works of art. And by giving a visible form to their fears and desires, they somehow dominate the affairs. After visiting the Trocadero Museum, Picasso began collecting African masks, sculptures, and musical instruments, and had collected about 100 African pieces before his death. The colonial wars of the White Continent against the Black Continent were aimed not only at plundering wealth and enslaving the people of this country, but also at plundering their thoughts and identities. The iconic museum of the western civilized world, the Louvre Museum houses a vast collection of Napoleon's stolen art from around the world. The plundering of the culture and civilization of colonized countries is no less important to colonizers than the treasures of a country, because it forces people under colonization not to consider themselves as a separate nation with independent thinking and culture and not to try to preserve their culture. Spirituality was the secret hidden in the artworks of Africans and attracted Western artists, whose land was empty of this concept. Simple and unpretentious African paintings and three-dimensional sculptures surprised Westerners, and it was in this regard that the art school of cubism based on the use of warm colors and primitive and geometric shapes appeared. But the West never admits that it owes the development of its culture and art to its colonial countries. Western artists considered African societies mysterious, spiritual and also wild. They chose and attributed to themselves what was attractive to them about the visual and cultural identity of Africans (‘Cubism Was Founded by Africans’).

Picasso and Braque may have pioneered one of the most radical avant-garde movements in Europe in the early 20th century: cubism. But African engravers were superior to abstract reality. With their vital sculptures and masks, African artists invented the aesthetics that would later inspire the so popular cubist styles. Their abstract and dramatic impact on the simplistic human race dates back much earlier than the more famous Picasso and extends beyond the Cubist movement itself. The entry of African art reaches from Fauvism to Surrealism, Modernism to Abstract Expressionism, and even contemporary art. African art has often been described as abstract, exaggerated, dramatic and stylized. However, all these typical features have also been attributed to works of art of the Cubist movement. African artists often applied wood, ivory, and metal to create traditional masks, sculptures, and plaques. The malleability of these materials allowed sharp incisions and expressive incisions that resulted in thunderous linear sculptures and faceted sculptures within the round. Instead of showing a gure from a single perspective, African engravers combined several features of the subject so that they could be seen at once. In this principle, African art favors abstract shapes over realistic forms, to the extent that even most of its three-dimensional sculptures would depict a two-dimensional appearance. Art for the sake of art is not great in Africa. Or at least, it wasn't when 20th-century Western artists began wandering for inspiration in the richness of the African continent. Their art includes a wide variety of media and performances, while it is mainly addressed to the spiritual world. But the relationship between the physical and the spiritual becomes very tangible in their practices. African art is mostly utilitarian and can be seen in everyday objects, but it also plays an active role in rituals when commissioned by a shaman or worshipper. Therefore, the role of traditional African art is never merely decorative, but functional. Each object is created to perform either a spiritual or a political function. They are, indeed, imbued with supernatural powers and a symbolic meaning that transcends their physical representation. While functions vary from region to region, most masks are "activated" through a performance of dance, songs, and ululations. Some of their functions go from a suggestion of the spiritual to guard and protect (Bugle Dan mask). to pay homage to a loved one (Mblo Baule mask) or worship a deity. refer to death and the afterlife or address gender roles in society (Pwo Chokwe mask & Bundu Mende mask). Others document historical events or symbolize royal power (also known as the Bamileke mask). The fact is that most are created to continue established traditions and be used alongside everyday and religious rituals (‘African Art’).

Types of Cubism

The main types of cubism are three: proto-cubism, analytical cubism, and synthetic cubism. Proto-Cubism is the experimental phase between Impressionism and Analytical Cubism that emerged from the early 20th century until about 1906. Proto-cubism is sometimes grouped with Sezanian cubism, a nod to the profound influence of French post-impressionist painter Paul Cézanne on the birth of the cubist movement. Sezanne cubism refers to Cézanne's geometric, angular paintings and the distinctive style that bridged the impressionist and cubist styles. Cézanne was interested in simplifying physical forms on their geometric foundations using "broken brushes" and "constructive brushstrokes," which were common impressionist techniques. Cézanne's method of constructing shapes with fragmented brushstrokes and his analytical approach to landscape painting influenced Cubists, Fauves, and successive generations of avant-garde artists. Many early cubist paintings also seem to capture the creative essence of the natural world rather than simply reproducing what is observed in nature. Proto-cubist paintings, such as those of Paul Cézanne, achieve this creative appeal because their use of color, form and perspective deviates from tradition (Meleca, The 3 Types of Cubism). Analytical cubism, the first phase of cubism that lasted from 1907 to 1912, is characterized mainly by paintings that represent a subject from multiple overlapping points of view within a single plane of image. The resulting artworks had a fragmented, geometric and abstract appearance. The analytical cubist paintings were also largely monochromatic, using earth tones. Analytical cubism differs from previous artistic movements such as impressionism, where composition is also fragmented to the point of abstraction. However, impressionist artists used vivid colors that emphasized the effects of light on nature. Cubism, on the other hand, overlaps multiple angles and image layers that made the subject seem extremely unrealistic or unrepresentative. Around 1912, the second major phase of Cubism appeared: Synthetic Cubism. While Analytical Cubism favored the analysis of deconstructed forms and compositions that represented multiple perspectives on the same level of image, many artists working in the Synthetic Cubist style preferred to flatten their subject completely, creating two-dimensional depictions of objects and people. This new way of conceiving form would eventually prove that the work of Pablo Picasso and Georges Braque exerts influence beyond the conventions of Cubism. Many of the fine arts movements that followed would embrace the many new techniques manifested in the synthetic cubist artwork. The neutral, earthy color palette of Analytical Cubism also evolved to include more intense colors and simple shapes, while maintaining the overlapping layers already central to cubist works. The shift towards bold and flawless color seen in Synthetic Cubism is often seen as a precursor to the simple yet vibrant artworks of the Pop Art movement. Synthetic cubist artists also formalized the papier collé technique of pasting pieces of paper onto a flat surface like a canvas, now known more commonly as collage. The papier collé technique yielded compositions with even greater flatness than during the phase of Analytical Cubism. The political commentary that was important for the late phase of Cubism also influenced the artistic movements that emerged both during the World Wars and in the postwar period. The multifaceted, multidimensional forms of Cubism directly influenced many twentieth-century artists and modern art movements such as Dadaism, Surrealism, Futurism, Suprematism, Constructivism, and De Steele (Meleca, 4 Characteristics of Cubism and Why They Are Important – Artlex).

Cubism and other movements

Cubism and expressionism are among the first Western art movements to use thick, expressive brushstrokes. Both movements sought to move away from the conventions of literal representation and embrace a more expressive style of painting, whether sentimental like Expressionism or technical like Cubism. The Cubists reassembled their subjects using short sketch-like brushstrokes to create color and value in opaque layers. Loose brushstrokes could also hint at a variety of emotions, especially when combined with colors, making it a basic technique for many expressionist painters. Cubism and expressionism have many similarities, with the three most important being loose brushstroke, distorted subject matter, and rejection of academic painting conventions. The three main differences between cubism and expressionism are the use of color, subjective interpretation, and form processing (Meleca, Cubism vs Expressionism). Cubism and impressionism have many similarities, with the three most important being the use of a broken and constructive brush, the rejection of the strict rules of academic painting, and representation. The broken brush refers to the quick strokes that resemble sketches used by the Impressionists to represent their subject. Impressionist artists used short, visible strokes of color to capture the overall impression of their subject, consciously overlooking fine details. Constructive brush refers to meticulously arranged brushstrokes that work together to create shape and form with areas of color rather than unbroken, black lines. The Cubists also used small brushstrokes created to form visually complex, overlapping planes. Three main differences between cubism and impressionism are the theme, the use of color, and the element of time. Cubist paintings were often portraits. The use of humans as a subject lent well to Cubism's concern with representing reality from many perspectives. While portraits were typical in the earlier phase of Cubism, later Cubist artists expanded their subject to include still lifes and landscapes. Unlike cubism, capturing the effects of light on landscapes was a primary concern of impressionist painters, which is why so many impressionist paintings feature landscapes as a subject. Instead of working in a studio, many Impressionists preferred to paint en plein air or outdoors. Painting outdoors required artists to work quickly, but it allowed them to accurately capture fleeting impressions of light on earth, sea, and sky. Cubist paintings, particularly those of the Analytical Cubism phase, have a monochromatic color palette using dark, earthy tones. The Cubists also used black and shades of gray to depict shadows. Impressionist painters, on the other hand, combined complementary colors to depict shadows instead of using black and gray. The colors themselves were brighter than those used in previous artistic movements due to the invention of synthetic pigments, which made it easier to mix colors and extended an artist's mobility beyond the studio (Meleca, Cubism vs Impressionism).

Music

Nakohi-waa (literally, butchers' dance), a kind of dance drumming by the Dagomba people of northern Ghana, vividly depicts the phenomenon of simultaneous multidimensional in African music (see Figure 1). Two types of drum are used: the hourglass-shaped tension drum (lunga) and cylindrical bass drum (gung gong). The ensemble has four roles: lead lunga (one drum), lunga response (several drums), lead gong-gong (one drum) and gung-gong answer (one drum). Traditional phrases contribute to Nakohi-waa's circular musical geometry, while eventual social commentary adds a narrative, topical character to the music. Answer lunga drums play a repetitive phrase particularly in a given dance that establishes musical counterpoint to the phrases of the lead lunga. Some dances, such as Nakohi-waa, have two parts of gung-gong: a supportive player puts a fixed groove on a drum, while the "soloist" moves through variations and improvised passages, defined by Alhaji Abubakari as "speechless drumming", that is, without semantic meaning in language. Among the special qualities of Nakohi-waa is the way in which each musical phrase begins at a different time in its repetitive musical cycle (see Figure 3). In both cubist painting and Dagomba drum dance, aesthetic tension arises from the semiotic interaction of Catholics versus local signifiers. Aesthetically and semantically, the presence of drum language in instrumental music is similar to the use of newspaper clippings in Picasso's collages. That is, it contrasts the global communicative reach of abstract music with the local specificity of a semantic code within a group.18 Because drum music almost always posits expressions of colloquial language, Alhaji Abubakari Lunna would refer to musical phrases as "conversations." While every listener can enjoy dance dnimming as instrumental music, knowledge of the semantic meaning of drum "conversations" is unevenly distributed even among fluent Dagbani speakers. Well-trained children of leaders and drummers are expected to know the language of drums – knowledge that differentiates them from ordinary mortals who have less access to the concept of drumming. Both the cubist painter and the drummer of Dagomba deliberately keep secrets from their viewers or listeners. Artistic creation may be examined for its immediate sensory quality, but members of the public, so to speak, know that something is being withheld or obscured. In both idioms the act of reception involves solving puzzles, going down the surface and active perceptual cognition. The phenomenon of musical cubism has to do with both the perception and the organization of notes. In semiotic terms, Nakohi-waas ensemble music is a complex signifier that draws expressive power from the combination of multideterminant parts. By presenting to the musical ear of the mind multiple simultaneous views of a musical work that is constantly in a state of non-dissolving transformation, music such as Nakohi-waa engages the subjectivity of the listener.41 Nakohi-waa's response will illustrate the many configurations that a short repetitive musical phrase presents to a creative listener (see Figure 7). In staff notation, the phrase of the lunga response is represented by four notes timed over six pulses (Locke).

Notable Compositions

Piano and Wind Concerto – Igor Stravinsky

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Yn-s6C7uLS8&feature=emb_logo 

Igor Stravinsky (1882–1971) was an important music composer of the 20th century. His multifaceted work and the paradoxes of some of his expressive choices caused intense controversy in the world of literary contemporary music (Chamber Symphony No. 1 (Schoenberg) - Wikipedia). Igor Stravinsky fled the Russian Revolution and eventually settled in Paris in the 1920s. He formed close friendships with contemporary visual artists, including Pablo Picasso, founder of Cubism. Cubism inspired Stravinsky to develop a new approach to the construction of musical forms, based in part on familiar models from the past. One of his first "neoclassical" masterpieces was this concerto. Stravinsky loved to perform it himself and believed that the piano, a percussion instrument, worked well with the sound of wind instruments (‘Claude Debussy’).

Ionization – Varese (1929-1931)

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=1lpAXz79oAI 

Edgard Victor Achilles Charles Varese (1883-1965) was a French composer. He spent most of his career in the United States. The music of Varèse Gives emphasis at timbre and rhythm. The Varèse's perception of music reflected his vision for "Sound as living matter" and for "musical space as open and not bounded". He conceived the elements of his music in terms of "sound masses", likening their organization to the natural phenomenon of crystallization. Varez thought that "to stubbornly formed ears, anything new in music was always called noise" and posed the question, "What is music but organized noise?" ('Edgard Varèse'). "Ionization" is a composition written for thirteen percussions. It includes the expansion and variation of rhythmic cells, and the title refers to the ionization of molecules.  As the composer later described, "I was not so much influenced by composers as by natural objects and natural phenomena." Varese also acknowledged the influence of Italian futurist artists Luigi Rusolo and Filippo Tommaso Marinetti in the composition of this work (‘Ionization (Varese)').

Trois Sarabande (1887, duration)

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=heN-VEQp1Vk 

The "Sarabante" It is a dance in triple meter that Comes from the Spanish colonies of Central America in the mid-1500s.  He had migrated to Europe since the 17th century, where in France it became a popular slow court dance. Modern reinterpretations of Satie consist of three dances totaling about 15 minutes. The Sarabantes also played a key role in the late discovery of Sati by his country's music establishment in the 1910s, laying the groundwork for his international fame. A comparison of the attitudes of Sati and the Cubists provides an understanding of the similar treatment of the thematic material (‘Sarabande (Satie)’). 

Ariadne auf Naxos – Strauss (1912)

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=aPIra-H7BZQ 

Richard Strauss (1864–1949)  was a German composer, conductor, pianist and violinist. He is considered a leading composer of the late romantic and early modern eras,

has been described as the successor of Richard Wagner and Franz Liszt. Together with Gustav Mahler, he represents the late flowering of German romanticism, in which the avant-garde Thin Nuances of orchestration are combined with an advanced harmonic style ('Richard Strauss'). The project Ariadne in Naxos (Ariadne on Naxos), Op. 60, is an opera with a German libretto his Hugo von Hofmannsthal. The unusual combination of elements of low commedia dell'arte of opera with those of high opera seria highlights one of the main themes of the work: the competition between high and low art for public attention (Ariadne auf Naxos - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia)

Octet – Stravinsky

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=YyqLnP0hOnI 

It is chamber music composition ('Octet (Stravinsky)'). It is written for an unusual combination of woodwind and brass instruments. It is generally regarded as the beginning of neoclassicism in Stravinsky's music, although his opera Mavra (1921–22) already exhibited most of the features associated with this phase of his career ('Octet (Stravinsky)').

Les Cinque Bagatelles – Georges Auric (chronology, duration)

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=coFZb-e8_Ug 

French composer Georges Auric (1899–1983) was a member of Les Six. His compositional career was distinguished mainly by his film music. However, its catalogue is diverse, and 5 Bagatelles is a beautiful collection of four-hand piano duets (Georges Auric: 5 Bagatelles Piano 4 Mains: Piano 4 Hands | Musicroom.Com).

The Rite of Spring – Igor Stravinsky (chronology, duration)

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=yrhGmXY_wpk 

It's ballet. When it was released, it caused an art scandal. The idea for The Rite of Spring came to Stravinsky in 1910, while he was still working on The Firebird.

"I see in my imagination the spectacle of a great pagan sacred rite:

the old sages, who sit in a circle and observe the dance at the death of a young girl, whom they sacrifice to make them the favorable god of spring."

writes the composer in his Chronicles (‘20th-Century Classical Music’).

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