First Phase of Modernism in Asia

Introduction

Asian art is diverse and rich. It spans thousands of years and dozens of countries (Asian Art | Oxford Art). It is worth noting that Asia is not a homogeneous landscape, but a place of multiple and intersecting geographies, cultures, societies, stories and landscapes. The idea of "Asian" art is partly a Western classification as well as construction developed in the countries that make up the continent. Based on geography, Asia can be divided into four regions: 1) Central and Northern, 2) Western, 3) Eastern, and 4) South and Southeast Asia (A Brief History of the Cultures of Asia (Article) | Khan Academy).

From the late 1800s to the early 1900s, Western Europe pursued a policy of imperialism that became known as New Imperialism. By 1870, it became necessary for European industrialized nations to expand their markets worldwide to sell products they could not sell domestically. Businessmen and bankers had surplus capital to invest in, and foreign investment offered the incentive for greater profits, despite the risks. The need for cheap labor and a steady supply of raw materials, such as oil, rubber, and manganese for steel, required industrialized nations to maintain firm control over these unexplored regions. Only by directly controlling these areas, which meant creating colonies under their direct control, could the industrial economy function effectively – or so the imperialists believed. However, the economic benefits of the new imperialism were limited, because the new colonies were too poor to spend money on European goods.https://www.tamaqua.k12.pa.us/cms/lib07/PA01000119/Centricity/Domain/119/TheAgeofImperialism.pdf ).

Central and North Asia

Central and northern Asia, in the nineteenth century, was under Soviet control, which radically changed 1) local, 2) cultural, and 3) artistic expression (A Brief History of the Cultures of Asia (Article) | Khan Academy). The influence of the Soviet Union on Asian art was particularly evident in posters and advertisements of the time. Such images served as a reminder of the power of images and were used to 1) seduce, 2) manipulate, 3) delete, and 3) rewrite history (A Brief History of the Cultures of Asia (Article) | Khan Academy).

Western Asia

Throughout Western Asia, the dominant method of legal practice that held society together was Sharia law. For many people today the word Sharia conjures up images of oppressive and brutal punishments. While it is true that Sharia laws were used to impose death sentences in the Islamic world, as a code of law it was mainly used to address personal issues such as marriage, divorce and inheritance rights. The association of Sharia exclusively with the death penalty is a recent phenomenon promoted by the erroneous view of historical Islam. (Museums).

Women's equality is often at the heart of the debate. While the Qur'an is clear about gender equality "whoever does the right thing, whether male or female and is faithful, will enter the Garden," interpretation of Sharia over the centuries has imposed restrictions on women. Daughters could inherit only half of the sons, whereas in legal cases a woman's testimony carried half the weight of a man's. These distinctions were not limited to Islam alone, but the debate over women's rights was also an important issue for earlier Christian and Jewish religions. It is important to recognize that the roots of women's unequal social status came before the emergence of monotheism in Western Asia (Museums).

Arts

As far as the arts in West Asia are concerned, this period is associated with Orientalism. Orientalism was a style of painting which depicted the regions of Western Asia, North Africa, and the southeastern tip of Europe (‘Orientalist Paintings’). The most defining feature of orientalist art is exoticism: its subjects are stereotypical, its details exaggerated, the sensory worlds of tastes and smells are passionately invoked. The second important characteristic of orientalist art is eroticism (‘Orientalist Paintings’).

Music

In music, the nineteenth century in Western Asia, was characterized by the connection with the west, which brought the desire to define and clarify the musical pattern (‘Music in the Middle East’). The change in the Arabic scale marked the beginning of modern Arabic music theory. By the time of the direct French presence, Syria's Christian population had "already been touched by certain aspects of European thought," with educated families producing the founders of the nineteenth-century literary Arab renaissance, commonly referred to as the Nahda "Nahḍa."(Barbara).

Eastern Asia

Modernism in East Asia had different beginnings in each country. A common one that exists in most countries in the region is colonization by Europeans (Park). At this time, there was intense conflict between Western nations and East Asian countries, which was tied to both geopolitics and the "geographical distribution of power." (Royle). Nevertheless, the arrival of Westphalian rule authorities in nineteenth-century East Asia was not a uniformly transformative "shock", as is commonly thought. The Sino-centric battalion did not suddenly disappear, rather it remained and evolved gradually through a contentious process of change (Park).

1. China

For example, in China, the starting point of modernism can be considered its defeat in the Second Opium War in 1860 (Meccarelli et al.). In 1861, Emperor Xianfeng admitted that Imperial China had to treat Europe and Japan on the basis of sovereign equality. That year the first Ministry of Foreign Affairs was established, followed by the gradual and managed adoption of a number of key European institutions and practices in the conduct of diplomacy and international affairs, and the kowtow, a long-standing symbol of Chinese sovereignty and culture, was officially abolished (Park).

Arts

As far as the arts were concerned, China's defeat in the Second Opium War in 1860, 1) played an important role in the use of the camera, 2) greatly influenced the art trade, as well as the art styles produced. A schism developed among conservative artists, who sought to preserve their legacy in the face of rapid Westernization and innovative artists. At the same time, three styles appeared in painting: 1) the Lingan school, 2) the Beijing School (or Beijing style) and 3) the Shanghai School (or Shanghai style) (Meccarelli et al.). The Lingan school was the result of an attempt to dispel entrenched conservative thoughts. The art of the Lingan school combined Chinese and Western styles. His style was revolutionary and innovative, especially compared to traditional Chinese painting. He was influenced by the Nihonga visual arts and by the early Qing painter Yun Shuping (1633–1690). Along with Cantonese opera and Cantonese music, they are known as "the three schools of Lingnan" (Wikipedia contributors, ‘Lingnan School’). The Shanghai School marked the first significant departure from traditional Chinese painting, breaking with the elitist tradition of Chinese art, and focusing less on the symbolism emphasized by the Literati style and more on the visual content of the painting itself. At a time of rapid social change, works by the Shanghai School were widely innovative and diverse, and often contained thoughtful but light social commentary (Wikipedia contributors, ‘Shanghai School (Painting)’). These three schools formed the three pillars of modern Chinese painting.

Music

In China, by the end of the nineteenth century, intellectuals had begun to travel abroad for new ideas. This led to the emergence of a new musical movement, "New Music", as it was called. The "New Music" movement combined Chinese music with Western music. It reflected the new compositional techniques and musical idioms of the European styles of the eighteenth, nineteenth and early twentieth centuries (Liu and Mason). During this period, Cantonese opera was developed, one of the most important categories of Chinese opera, originating in a provincial city in southern China (Guangdong). Like all versions of Chinese opera, it is a traditional Chinese art form, involving music, singing, martial arts, acrobatics and acting (Wikipedia contributors, ‘Cantonese Opera’).

2. Japan

In Japan, modernism began around 1868 when the Tokugawa shogunate lost his power and Emperor Meiji was restored as head of the country. At the time, Japan was a militarily weak country, was mainly agricultural and had little technological development. It was controlled by hundreds of semi-independent feudal lords. Western powers had forced Japan to sign treaties limiting its control over its own foreign trade and demanding that crimes involving foreigners in Japan be tried not in Japanese courts, but in Western courts. The abolition of feudalism made enormous social and political changes possible. Millions of people were suddenly free to choose their profession and move around without restrictions.

Arts

As far as the arts in Japan are concerned at this time, the end of the feudal system meant the end of the old system of artistic patronage (‘The Art and Antiques of the Japanese Meiji Period’). The art of the Meiji period (1868-1912) was characterized by the division between European and traditional Japanese styles (Yockel). Styles such as 1) Yoga and 2) Nihonga appeared, while Japan's influence on the Western world led to Japaneseism. Western-style painting, Yoga (Yōga), was officially promoted by the government. He sent promising young artists abroad to study. The Yoga style painters formed a Meiji Society of Fine Arts to organize their own exhibitions and to renew interest in Western art. They also hired foreign artists to create art curricula in Japanese schools. The Yoga style included oil painting, watercolors, pastels, ink sketches, lithography, engraving, and other techniques developed in Western culture. (Yockel).

The explosion of Western style art also led to the creation of the Nihonga style, which moved in the opposite direction. Led by columnist Okakura Kakuzo and educator Ernest Fenollosa, there has been a revival of appreciation for traditional Japanese styles (Nihonga). In the 1880s, Western-style art was banned from official exhibitions and strongly criticized by critics. Supported by Okakura and Fenollosa, the Nihonga style evolved with influences from the European pre-Raphaelite movement and European romanticism. Paintings of this style were made according to traditional Japanese artistic conventions, techniques and materials based on traditions of a thousand years. (Yockel).

The introduction of Japanese art and design in Europe revolutionized composition, palette and visual space. Painters began studying Japanese prints and experimenting with new perspectives. They articulated the common juxtapositions of objects, along with unconventional cuts, to create less symmetrical and more attractive compositions. The allure of Japaneseism was paradoxical: it was appreciated for its exoticism and quickly turned into an organic expression of Western artistic ideals (Japonism Movement Overview | TheArtStory).

Music

As far as the music of this period in Japan is concerned, a strong presence of Western classical music was established, which was considered a fundamental factor of modernization. This led to the establishment of various Western-style composition schools  in Japan, such as the Tokyo Academy of Music, the genesis of opera tradition in Japan, and the creation of foundations for the familiarization of official Japanese tradition with Western music.

3. Korea

For Korea, the nineteenth was marked by significant changes both political, social, and cultural. As Korea entered the modern era and world order, many political upheavals took place among the royal families. This created drama, instability and visionless leadership. Socially, the class system was significantly weakened, even within the so-called elites, as more and more "fallen" literati began to demand equality and recognition. Culturally, many exciting developments occurred, including in the visual, literary, and performing arts (‘Korea, 1800–1900 A.D. | Chronology | Heilbrunn Timeline of Art History | The Metropolitan Museum of Art’).

Arts

During the Japanese invasion in the 1880s, Korean art suffered a huge blow. Art education institutes were closed, famous works were destroyed or stolen, and Japanese themes and styles replaced traditional Korean art (Korean Art - Exploring Both Traditional and Modern Korean Art).

Painting

In this period, in painting the style became popular Haijeori. Paintings that used this style depicted still life. They also used three-dimensional effects, as well as reverse perspective, in which distant objects appear larger than those nearby, thus flattening the pictorial surface. These different elaborations of the spatial illusion led to compositions with an extremely graphic feel, enhanced by the decorative motifs on the depicted objects. Clearly, such still life images were not aimed at realism. In contrast, chaekgeori (defined as "paintings of books and related things") were seen as carriers of cultural values. They appeared more often in studios or schools and reflected respect for learning. These motifs expressed a variety of meanings. For example, eggplant represented the promise of a long life, while musical instruments symbolized harmony between people. They may also have served as amulets that ensured harmony inside and outside the house (Chaekgeori).

Music

During the Hosson (chosŏn) period, music was used to promote social harmony, which essentially helped reinforce social inequalities. The upper middle class preferred p'ungnyubang music, a form of traditional music. The term P'ungnyu was a key term in the culture of the period. It means "elegant taste" and defined the place in which it was performed. Six types of musicians were associated with the Royal Bureau of Music: 1) the aksa 樂師, 2) the aksaeng 樂生, 3) the akkong, 4) the yŏak 女樂 or yogi 女妓, 5) the mudong 舞童,  and 6) the Kwanhyŏn Maengin 管絃盲人 (Jiyoung).

South and Southeast Asia

During the nineteenth century, Southeast Asia was colonized by Britain, France, and the Netherlands. Colonization had a huge impact on the populations and economies of the region. The British favored Indian and Chinese immigrants for skilled positions in Malaysia and rejected the general Malay population as peasantry. Education policies increased ethnic divisions. In Cambodia, the French favored the Vietnamese over the local population, while the British encouraged widespread Indian and Chinese immigration to Burma, a policy that led to division. The Burmese economy, which for many years was based on agriculture, turned into a large-scale export economy. In Indonesia, a political system was implemented, in which farmers were forced to grow export crops. Although to some extent this policy was successful, it also caused famine and misery. The desire to sell European products on colonial markets eroded traditional crafts, such as the production of batik and ikat fabrics in Indonesia. The regular wars waged to gain control of the region further damaged it (Eat). Nevertheless, colonial powers invested in learning and recording local stories, thereby strengthening the identity and self-image of colonized countries. In particular, the colonialists began to study and take care of the restoration of ancient monuments. In addition, they began opening museums and conducting archaeological research, which helped highlight monuments, such as the Cham monument in Vietnam, and turn public attention towards them.  Finally, by photographing museums, museums such as Angkor Wat, the largest religious monument in the world, were discovered (Eat). Thus, a new respect for Southeast Asian cultures was created, and the region became a major source of inspiration for twentieth-century indigenous artists, who sought to create modern, non-Western arts (Eat).

1. Arts

In South and Southeast Asia in the modern period, colonization had a huge impact on the cultures and societies of the countries. During the nineteenth century, Cambodia, Laos, and Vietnam were under French colonization, the so-called Indian subcontinent was under British rule, and present-day Indonesia became a Dutch colony. In contrast to the situation in Central and North Asia, South and Southeast Asia had its resources exploited by the European powers. The European powers dictated the type, manner and purpose of the producers (Coman).

Nevertheless, many of the traditions continued to thrive. Religious images tended to be conservative and relatively immune to Westernization. One of the reasons was the indigenous courts, which protected the high standard in various arts such as textiles, metalwork, jewelry and ceramics. The manuscript paintings largely remained traditional, although to some the influences of European influence are evident.  In Burma, for example, European iconographic conventions dominated frescoes in various temples, while in others European and indigenous architectural structures and motifs were mixed. Western art in Vietnam influenced several painters who worked in oils in the late nineteenth century. Despite Thailand's independence, passion for things west influenced the elite of this period. During the next half century and until the early twentieth, photography and naturalistic painting and sculpture dominated Thai art (Coman).

In India, the swadeshi movement encouraged artists to envision non-Western, exclusively Indian art. However, in the case of the Bengal School of Painting that came out of this context, European and modern developments found their way into the basic concepts of the new school. The Suantesi-inspired Bengal School shared many characteristics with modern Nihonga. Like the Bengal School, Nihonga opposed Western painting, but brought the influence of Western ideas and techniques. Some supporters and practitioners of both schools knew and inspired each other (Coman).

2. Music

In the late nineteenth century, Hindustani music and its culture arrived in Calcutta. Upon her arrival, the practice of interpretation and the social organization of Hindustani musical culture were confronted with the social and cultural experimentation and innovation that had come to define the "Bengal Renaissance." Hindustani music was certainly not isolated from the broader cultural dynamics. Over the course of four or five decades, its practitioners have been forced to formulate a series of responses to negotiate the challenges posed by new music (McNeil).

Afghan music has many different musical traditions. Although it is common practice to classify Afghan music for linguistic and regional lines (e.g. Pashtu, Farsi, Logari, Somali, etc.), a more appropriate classification is based on their musical style. Thus, Afghan music can be mainly divided into four categories: 1) Indian classical, 2) Mohali (folk and regional styles), 3) western and 4) simple Afghan music (‘| Music Essay’).

Many Ustas, or professional musicians, learned North Indian classical music in India, and some of them were Indian descendants who moved from India to the royal court in Kabul in the 1860s. They maintained cultural and personal ties with India, through discipleship or intermarriage, and used Hindustani musical theories and terminology, for example raga (melodic form) and tala (rhythmic cycle). Afghanistan's classical singers include the late Ustad Sarahang (1924-1983), who was one of Patiala Gharana's leading singers in North Indian classical music, Ustad Qasim, Rahim Bakhsh, and Ustad Nato (‘| Music Essay’).

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