Primitivism

Introduction

Primitivism is the approval and enthusiasm for primitive art, generally understood to mean the art of Africa and the Pacific Islands. Western artists had a particular interest in this type of ethnic art c. 1905-1935, starting with Fauves, Cubists and Die Brucke who incorporated elements of it into their own work. This in turn led to a deeper study of this topic by both anthropologists and art historians (Kiely). The word "primitive" comes from Latin and means "first or oldest of its kind". Explorers of the South Pacific and Africa returned with stories of new civilizations that bore little resemblance to what Europeans understood or loved (artincontext). The term "Primitivism" has been used to refer to many different things. It can be used as a descriptive term for the art of primitive cultures, or it can be used as an umbrella term for all art that deals with the depiction of a pre-industrial world. However, since it is so often used in relation to contemporary art, it is important to understand what this term really means and how it applies to specific works of art (Matt). The term "Primitive Art" is a rather vague (and inevitably ethnocentric) description that refers to the cultural objects of "primitive" peoples – that is, those ethnic groups that are considered to have a relatively low level of technological development according to Western standards. It includes African Art (Sub-Saharan), Ocean Art (Pacific Islands), Aboriginal Art (Australia) as well as other types of Rock Art from prehistory and also Tribal Art from (e.g.) America and Southeast Asia. The concept of "primitive" humans dates back to the Age of Discovery (c.1500 onwards) and is largely (though not exclusively) linked to a Christian-Caucasian worldview. It should be noted, however, that the term "primitive art" is not commonly used to describe Chinese, Indian or Islamic works of art or works of art from any of the great civilizations, including Egyptian, Greek, or Roman civilizations. The term "primitivism", which appeared in fine arts in the late 19th century, is used to describe any art characterized by images and motifs associated with such primitive art. Characterized by ethnographic forms, often of great visual power, this artistic primitivism dates back to the 1890s, when it appeared in the paintings of Paul Gauguin in Tahiti (1848-1903) and quickly led to a trend among French and German artists of the expressionist avant-garde. Indeed, many began to visit collections of ethnological objects: in 1902, the British-American sculptor Jacob Epstein visited the Musée Trocadero in Paris, as did Derain and Vlaminck in 1904-5 and Picasso in 1907. in 1903 and 1906, Ernst Ludwig Kirchner visited the ethnological collection in Dresden. In 1907, Kandinsky saw the new collection of primitive exhibits in Berlin, which was also visited by Schmidt-Rottluff, Franz Marc and others. In addition, the term "Primitivism" is also used to describe art created by "primitives" – the name given to certain artists, usually self-taught, whose paintings are usually simplistic in form and color and lack conventional motifs such as chiaroscuro, linear perspective, and other types of proportionality. Featuring children's imagery, this Western-style category of primitive art is also known as "The Art of the Stranger," "Naïve Art," or Art Brut ("raw art") and exemplifies Henri Rousseau's Le Douanier (1844-1910): see, for example, his masterpieces The Sleeping Gypsy (1897) and The Dream (1910), both at the Museum of Modern Art in New York. Other primitive artists include Paul Klee (1879–1940), Mikhail Larionov (1881–1964), L.S. Lowry (1887–1976), Jean Dubuffet (1901–85), Frida Kahlo (1907–1954), Asger Jorn (1914–73), Karel Appel (1921–2006) and other members of the European avant-garde of the 1950s. The biggest exploitation of outsider art is the collection of Jean Dubuffet de l'Art Brut – located in Lausanne, Switzerland. A smaller assembly is the Musgrave Kinley Outsider Art Collection, at the Irish Museum of Modern Art (IMMA), with works by artists such as Aloise, Henry Darger, Madge Gill, Hauser, J.B. Murry, Oswald Chirtner, Van Genk, Wolfley, Zemankova and others. Note, however, that art is not an isolated phenomenon. It is part of a culture, linked to the history of civilization and to the history of the people. Consequently, we should see primitive art simply as a general term covering a variety of historical phenomena. the products of different races, mentalities, temperaments, historical events and influences of the environment. Every people, however primitive, has developed a certain style by giving priority to certain objects and patterns or to certain layouts of lines and spaces.  Since the first stage of anything is usually underdeveloped and unfinished, a popular concept has developed for the word "primitive," denoting something raw — without that particular symphony of lines, spaces, or colors, which is the source of our emotional sensation when looking at a real work of art. The "primitive work" in this sense, may simply be the work of a bungler that lacks both artistic inspiration and technical ability, so it has nothing to do with the real primitive, but is simply bad art without even a documentary value to recommend it. On the other hand, if it is the work of a savage or a child, it will have some significance at least as genetic or psychological elements (Primitivism, Primitive Art: Definition, Characteristics). A term used to describe art that uses "primitive" elements or forms. Today the term "primitive" is often considered demeaning when applied to non-Western cultures, which is why it is often placed in quotation marks (Primitivism). Primitivism has been seen as an artistic reaction to industrialization and urbanization, and as a desire to return to some degree of simplicity and natural beauty in art. Its adherents have been associated with both modernism and postmodernism (Matt).

History

The primitive movement was started by the French artist Jean Dubuffet. He was interested in anthropology and art, so he combined these two interests together to find his own unique art style. He believed that there was a connection between primitive man and modern man, as well as his idea of the "original state" of humanity (Matt). Primitivism appeared in the second half of the 19th century in France. A great catalyst was the opening of the Musée Trocadéro in 1878 – the first museum to exhibit tribal African arts in Paris. Many artists visited the Trocadéro in search of inspiration and several of them became collectors of African and oceanic art. Although primitivism began in France, it soon traveled throughout Europe and America through the great influence of the artists who first adopted it (Kiely). Westerners had long misunderstood African art as "primitive." The term carries with it negative connotations of underdevelopment and poverty. The colonization and slave trade in Africa during the nineteenth century created a Western understanding that depended on the belief that African art lacked technical ability due to its low socioeconomic status (Breukel). After the shock of impressionism, painters such as Picasso and Matisse began to explore a new genre of painting that was more expressive and less realistic. This style is called fauvism. Fauvism arose from a movement known as primitivism that emerged in France around 1900. Until then, some painters were trying to return to the primitive style of painting that had been used in western Europe before the Renaissance. The spirit of primitive art can be seen in the work of Gauguin. He was an important artist and his paintings are considered some of the most important works in art history. In particular, his painting "The Spirit of the Dead Watching" is a painting that has been studied by many art students as well as psychology students. Gauguin has been described as a "primitive" artist because he focused on depicting the subject with simple lines and colors in order to capture the essence of primitive art forms. In this painting, we see a figure who seems to be paying attention to something or someone (Matt). Fry was a supporter of African art as well as primitive modernism, and three of the headliners (Gauguin, Matisse, and Picasso) could be considered primitive (Snyder). The inhumane effects of 19th-century industrialization, combined with the carnage of the Great War (1914-18), made many artists disillusioned with the culture and values of their own society, which they considered corrupt and morally bankrupt. The fine arts – especially the formal "academic art" taught in the Academies – were identified with these corrupt values. By comparison, "primitive" art seemed more spontaneous, more honest and more emotionally charged. The classification of a painting or sculpture as "primitive" presupposes the existence of "non-primitive" art. How should we describe such a category of "non-primitive" art? -Modernist? Progressive? Technologically advanced? None of these descriptions seem satisfactory. Perhaps because there is no such category. After all, aesthetics is not a science - there is no such thing as "advanced beauty" or "primitive beauty" (Primitivism, Primitive Art: Definition, Characteristics). A term that has been used to refer to the art of various historical European periods and non-Western societies. In the mid-19th century, it was mainly applied to Italian and Flemish art of the 14th and 15th centuries, which modern artists appreciated for what they saw as simplicity, sincerity and expressive power. The use of the term then broadened to include a spectrum of non-Western art, sweeping from South America to Southeast Asia. In the early 20th century, European artists embraced African and ocean masks and statuettes, and the term was associated with works from these regions. Such a work deeply influenced these artists, who perceived in it a physical immediacy and emotional charge that they found fascinating and special. At the end of the 20th century the term, with its pejorative connotations, was falling out (‘Primitive Art | MoMA’). At the end of the nineteenth century, many European artists and thinkers were confused by the prevailing culture of naturalism, which they felt was exhausted. European countries, including France and the United Kingdom, were colonial powers, and so-called "primitive" art from non-Western, colonized countries was a source of great fascination. European artists were attracted by the idea of "otherness" that these places represented and saw their art forms as a raw, pure form of expression, in harmony with the human spirit and the emotional inner world. However, such material was often interpreted by European artists in aesthetic rather than anthropological terms, where artists gave their own meanings to the mysterious new patterns, shapes and patterns they encountered. The French Post-Impressionists were among the first to explore the ways in which other cultures could infuse their artworks with a new way of thinking and seeing, which paved the way for an explosion of creativity at the turn of the century. French artist Paul Gauguin was part of a generation that was increasingly disillusioned with the industrialization of Paris in the late 1800s. As a reaction against modernity he was attracted by romantic fascination with distant countries in less developed countries, in search of a lost paradise. He made several extensive visits to Tahiti, where vibrant colors and rich plant life provided a source of inspiration. There he produced his most famous and elaborate paintings, rich in color and symbolism. He was fascinated by Tahitian women, whom he often idealized in his paintings, such as three Tahitians, 1899, although many have argued that he exploited them. He also made a series of totemic sculptures made of wood-carved wood, which proved particularly influential in the development of Primitivism in Paris. The ideas drawn from "primitive" art had a great influence on the development of the avant-garde of the early twentieth century, including Cubism, Fauvism, and Expressionism. These revolutionary movements changed traditional iconographic methods, inviting a progressive, open-minded way of looking and looking, with multi-layered references, concepts, and styles. They also opened up possibilities for "outsiders" within works of art, such as children's drawings, folk art and the work of the "unformed" artist, seen most evidently in Jean Dubuffet's Art Informel and Jean Michel Basquiat's street art paintings in the following decades (Primitivism). While trends in art shifted in other directions after World War II, one can easily argue that Primitivism never really ended. The lessons learned by mainstream Euro-American art from African and other "primitive" art styles are still with us today (Kiely).

Politics

In European art, the aesthetics of primitivism included techniques, motifs, and styles copied from the arts of Asian, African, and Australasian peoples who were considered primitive in relation to the urban culture of Western Europe. In this light, the inclusion of Tahitian images by painter Paul Gauguin in his oil paintings was a characteristic borrowing of technique, pattern and style that was important for the development of contemporary art (1860s-1970s) in the late 19th century. [2] As a genre of Western art, primitivism reproduced and perpetuated racist stereotypes, such as "The Noble Savage", in which colonialists justified white colonial domination over the non-white Other in Asia, Africa, and Australasia. In addition, the term primitivism also identifies the techniques, motifs, and painting styles that dominated figurative painting before the advent of the Avant-Garde. and also identifies styles of naïve art and folk art produced by amateur artists, such as Henri Rousseau, who painted for personal pleasure ('Primitivism'). Matisse was not the first artist to appropriate non-Western art. Primitivism, as it became known, had begun to be embraced by artists in France in the late 19th century, although some of its roots go further back to pastoral paintings of a golden age of the Neoclassical period. And although it was fundamental to this, it wasn't just non-Western objects that were of interest. Children's art and later the art of the mentally ill, the so-called art of the stranger and folk art contributed significantly to the development of modernism, not only in the visual arts but also in music. Although naivety and lack of complexity applied neither to African art nor to art from other non-Western cultures, the artists were impressed by the immediacy, simplicity, and non-naturalism they discovered in these objects. But no thought was given to what these objects might mean, nor to understanding the unique cultures from which they originate. The politics of colonialism were not even in their infancy. The Trocadéro museum, which had impressed Picasso so much, had opened in 1878, with artifacts looted from the French colonies. Current curators, including those at the Royal Academy's Matisse exhibition featuring African masks and figures from the artist's collection, at least seek to acknowledge and correct it to a small extent. A similar effort was made earlier this year for Picasso Primitif at Paris' Musée du Quai Branly, an exhibition exploring Picasso's lifelong relationship with African art. The sculptures, from West and Central Africa, were given as much space and significance as the work of Picasso himself, and one could appreciate firsthand the close correspondence between the works. Even before leaving European shores for good, she had lived in an artists' colony in Brittany, painting deeply religious peasant women in traditional Breton attire. These paintings, such as Vision After the Sermon (Jacob Wrestling with the Angel), 1888, possess a rather unsettling and erotic sense of mind, as do his Tahiti paintings, with its spicy mixture of sex and death. Gauguin: Artist as Alchemist shows us an artist fully immersed in the life from which his art was born. The importance of non-European art in the avant-garde and artistic modernism of the 20th century cannot be overstated. It goes far beyond these three prominent artists, although all three were particularly instrumental in spreading his influence, from the Surrealists to Jackson Pollock. And even closer to our time, seemingly long after the fascination with the primitive had run out, Ana Mendieta's ritualistic art and Jean-Michel Basquiat's energetic postmodern faux-tribal paintings saw that it certainly hadn't. (Guner). Wikipedia describes "Tribal Art" as: an umbrella term used to describe objects and objects created by the indigenous peoples of (controversially named) primitive cultures. Also known as Ethnographic Art or Primitive Art, Tribal Art has three main categories: Africa, New World or America and Oceania. It can be thought of as folk art, often containing ritual/religious significance related to custom within a particular tribal culture. Then in "Primitive Art" includes art from a specific era that originated specifically in Africa, "Tribal Art" also includes the regions of the New World/America and Oceania and seems to be less specific about time. It is agreed that "Primitive Art" is no longer an appropriate term in contemporary art dialogue. "Tribal Art" is still sensitive, however it seems to have less hostility and seems to be reintroduced, to some extent, into the mainstream lexicon.

Arts

Primitivism can be seen as a reaction against both conservative academic art and the impersonal Industrial Revolution. In general, much of so-called "primitive" art did not value naturalism, storytelling, and depiction as European art traditionally has. Therefore, the adoption of these traditions opened up many new avenues for exploration. Those who found inspiration in Primitivism also saw a deep connection between non-academic art and deep spirituality. In other words, there was the idea that art created by supposedly less civilized people was somehow purer and more instinctive than the artificial artistic styles favored by the modern west. The source material for Primitivism was not necessarily limited to non-Western art. European artists also turned to works of art that survived the prehistoric past of their cultures, as well as modern rural culture. Some primitives were also interested in folk art, untrained art, and the art that children did. Primitivism could sometimes be reflected in the subject matter, especially by artists such as Paul Gauguin and Henri Rousseau. Rousseau is famous for his jungle scenes, while Gauguin lived among and painted French peasants in Brittany and indigenous people in Tahiti. Meanwhile, the Surrealists explored the perceived spiritual aspects of Primitivism rather than its aesthetics. Many people believed that "primitive" works of art expressed fundamental human truths in a way that educated European artworks did not. (Kiely).  Primitivism in art is usually seen as a cultural phenomenon of Western art, however the structure of primitive idealism is found in the artworks of non-Western and anti-colonial artists. Nostalgia for an idealized past when people lived in harmony with nature is related to critiques of the negative cultural impact of Western modernity on colonized peoples. The primitive works of anticolonial artists are critiques of Western stereotypes about colonized peoples, while longing for the pre-colonial way of life. The processes of decolonization merge with the reverse teleology of Primitivism to produce indigenous artworks other than the primitive artworks of Western artists, which reinforce colonial stereotypes as true. Unlike most -isms, primitivism has no fixed characteristics. Instead of being a true artistic style, it was a more general trend that appeared in works by different artists in different movements. Everyone used it differently. We can find his influences in Post-Impressionism, German Expressionism, Surrealism and especially Cubism. For many artists, the lack of emphasis on naturalism, volume, linear perspective, and storytelling was the main attraction of Primitivism. Consequently, we often see flattened forms and the use of non-traditional perspective in works influenced by this tradition. The fragmented forms and multiple perspectives of Cubism are truly indebted to Primitivism in this sense. Many artists inspired by Primitivism also used abstract geometric patterns and bright colors. Since African masks were among the hottest items collected among the Parisian avant-garde ensemble, mask-inspired images were also commonplace. The most famous examples appear in Pablo Picasso's paintings, such as Les Demoiselles d'Avignon and the Portrait of Gertrude Stein. There are many nice things about Primitivism, but its name is not one of them. This term comes from the fact that the Western world commonly referred to the African, oceanic, and indigenous cultures of North and South America as "primitive." It is ironic that artists drew inspiration from these cultures while simultaneously discrediting them through this terminology. While the term "primitive art" to describe African, oceanic, and Native American art has fallen out more recently, it is still quite common to hear the term "Primitivism" to describe European modernism influenced by these traditions. It is also unfortunate that artists inspired by Primitivism did not usually make an effort to understand and respect their source material. It didn't seem to be important for these artists to find out who, how, and why. Instead, they simply took the aspects they liked and dismissed the rest as inferior. Because of this, primitivism should not be confused with African-inspired artwork created by artists of African descent around the same time. (Kiely). From 1906 onwards, merchants such as Paul Guillaume, as well as artists such as Matisse, Picasso, Derain and Braque, began buying African tribal masks and figurines. As a result, the influence of "Negro art" on both painting and sculpture was quite noticeable in Paris after 1907 and in Berlin, Dresden, and London after 1912. By the 1920s it had become almost universal and continued until the early 1930s, when oceanic, Indian and Eskimo art became a major source of inspiration for the Surrealists and their followers. Among the artists most influenced by primitivism were German expressionists Emil Nolde (1867-1956) and Max Pechstein (1881-1955), Fauvist Henri Matisse (1869-1954), contemporary Romanian sculptor Constantin Brancusi (1876-1957), British sculptor Jacob Epstein (1880-1959), Paris-based Italian portraitist and sculptor Modigliani (1884-1920), and Pablo Picasso (1881-1973), among many others. Russian primitivism had a significant impact on Natalia Goncharova (1881-1962), who developed a style of neo-primitive art. The impact of African, oceanic, Aboriginal and other so-called primitive artists on Western artists continues to this day and includes a range of styles, including painting, sculpture, assembly, body art (such as face painting and body painting), tattoos, woodcarving, and more. Although painters were the first to be interested in primitivism, its greatest impact was on sculpture. Fauvist painter Andre Derain even learned to carve limestone to produce works of primitive style (Primitivism, Primitive Art: Definition, Characteristics).

Music

Primitivism [in music] was a reaction from the overanalysis of artists like Debussy and Ravel. His followers preferred simple, clear melodies of folk character that revolved around a central note and moved within a narrow compass. Massive harmonies based on block strings moving in parallel formation with a hard percussive effect. and a strong impulse in a tonal center. Much evident were the ostinato rhythms repeated with an almost obsessive effect and a rough orchestration with massive timbres that contrasted sharply with the coloring subtleties of the Impressionists. Twentieth-century composers found inspiration not only in African music, but also in the songs and dances of the border regions of Western civilization of southeastern Europe, Asian Russia and the Near East. From the pristine, intense folk music of these regions came rhythms of elemental power that utilized new sources of emotion and imagination.  Milestones in this development were pieces such as Bartók's Allegro Barbaro and Stravinsky's Le Sacre du printemps (The Rite of Spring) (Music2). PRIMITIVE, unlike impressionism, uses musical elements that are well-defined and clear. Primitive music (note the adjective, this is not "primitive" music) is tonal, but tonality is not achieved through the expectation of resolution, as in the Common Practice Period, but through the affirmation of one note as more important than others. New sounds are composed of old ones juxtaposing two simple events to create a more complex new event. Primitivism has ties to EXOTISM (use of materials from other cultures), NATIONALISM (use of materials indigenous to specific countries), and NATIONALISM (use of materials from European ethnic groups). It eventually evolved into Neoclassicism. In Primitivism: Toneality is achieved through the process of ASSERTION. The most important step (tonic) is confirmed by emphasizing one note over all others, usually by many simultaneous means such as strong chime placement, conductive pressure (higher note values), or serving as a starting and returning point. Phrases can be either regular or irregular and end with many varieties of unformulated rhythms. Melodic sources may come from scales and modes, but they tend to be PANDIATONIC (each step becomes equal, avoiding a hierarchy of function). As in impressionism, these scales and modes are highlighted by making a step inventory centered around the claimed tonic. Melodic sources, such as impressionism, may also use non-traditional scales, such as pentatonic or whole tonal scales, or patterns of unusual or unique design, such as the octatonic scale or synthetic scales (new tone formations created by the composer). Often, only parts of scales (or modes) are used. These segments, which fall into phased patterns, are named for the lower note (as opposed to full scales), the name of the scale (or function), and for the number of notes used. It is possible to take any step in the section in the tonic, through the claim process. A common feature of Primitivism is the juxtaposition of two modes simultaneously (BIMODALITY) or two tones simultaneously (BITONALITY). Once the distinct modes and tones have been identified, it is important to analyze the complex effect of confrontation. The composite created by cowardice and vitonality is generally calculated by comparing the two tonal centers. Two tones that create a dissonant interval (such as a second or a third) are simply defined by that interval. Two tones that create a consonant interval are defined by the method associated with that interval. Counterpoint is commonly used and is either strict or freely constructed. Rhythms have a clear profile, but can occur in complex structures of nontraditional asymmetric gauges (SOUND PATTERNS: Chapter 42. Primitivism). 

Notable Compositions

Le Sacre du printemps (The Rite of Spring). – Stravinsky (1913)

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=EkwqPJZe8ms 

It is ballet music alongside the choreography of Vaslav Nijinsky. At the premiere of the work, the audience was shocked by the primitivism of the harsh dissonances, percussion and the pounding of the rhythm. In terms of rhythm, each pulse is played with the same force, negating the hierarchy of beats and off beats that is necessary in moderation. The accented chords, duplicated by another instrument, create an unpredictable pattern of pressures that destroy any sense of normalcy. rapidly changing counters, unpredictable alternation of notes with rests; As far as melody is concerned, the influence of primitivism is evident in the use of harsh dissonances, dissonances based on an octatonic collection, consists of repeated fragments and has a ritual and hypnotic quality. The influence of primitivism on connotation is associated with motivation and variation, Changes in timbre can be another means of providing variety if there is no development of the pattern and in the intense timbres reflected in the choice of instruments (SAINT PEDRO TELLS COLLEGE).

Bluebeard's Castle - Bela Bartok (1911)

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=GoImjQOEp-Q 

is a one-act symbolic opera to a Hungarian libretto by friend and poet Béla Balázs. Based on the French folk legend, or conte populaire as Charles Perrault tells it, it lasts about an hour and develops only two song characters: Bluebeard (Kékszakállú) and his younger wife Judith (Judit). The two have just left and she returns to his castle for the first time (Wikipedia Contributors, ‘Bluebeard’s Castle’).

Microcosms – Bartok (1926-1939) 

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=kPRxjd2ETSo 

It consists of 153 progressive piano pieces in six volumes written between 1926 and 1939. The individual pieces evolve from very easy and simple études for beginners to very difficult advanced technical displays and are used in modern piano lessons and training. Overall, according to Bartók, the piece "appears as a synthesis of all the musical and technical problems encountered and in some cases only partially resolved in previous piano works." Volumes one and two are dedicated to Péter's son, while volumes five and six are intended as professionally performed concert pieces. Bartók also mentioned that these pieces could also be played on other instruments. Huguette Dreyfus, for example, has recorded tracks from Books 3 to 6 on the harpsichord. In 1940, shortly before immigrating to the United States, he arranged seven of the pieces for two pianos, to provide additional repertoire for himself and his wife Ditta Pásztory-Bartók to play (Wikipedia Contributors, ‘Microcosm (Bartók)’).

The Miraculous Mandarin - Bela Bartok (1918-1924)

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=7-9OgSvnlHk 

is a one-act ballet based on the story of Melchior Lengyel of 1916. It premiered on November 27, 1926 under the baton of Eugen Szenkar at the Cologne Opera in Germany, caused a scandal and was subsequently banned on moral grounds. Although most successful at its premiere in Prague, it was generally performed during the rest of Bartók's life in the form of a concert suite, which retains about two-thirds of the original pantomime music (‘The Miraculous Mandarin’).

The Firebird - Igor Stravinsky

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=kd1xYKGnOEw 

It is a work of ballet and orchestral concert. the original choreography was by Michel Fokine, who collaborated with Alexandre Benois on a script based on Firebird's Russian fairy tales and the blessing and curse it possesses for its owner. It was first performed at the Paris Opera on 25 June 1910 and was an immediate success, catapulting Stravinsky to international fame. Although conceived as a work for the stage, with specific passages accompanying characters and action, the music achieved equal, if not greater recognition as a concert piece (‘The Firebird’).

Bibliography

artincontext. ‘Primitive Art - An Exploration of the Origins of Primitivism in Art’. Artincontext.Org, 11 Mar. 2022, https://artincontext.org/primitive-art/.

Breukel, Claire. ‘WTF Is… Primitive Art vs Tribal Art’. Hyperallergic, 14 Sept. 2011, http://hyperallergic.com/35460/primitive-art-vs-tribal-art/.

Güner, Fisun. How a Small African Figurine Changed Art. https://www.bbc.com/culture/article/20170818-how-a-small-african-figurine-changed-art. Accessed 20 Feb. 2023.

Kiely, Alexandra. ‘Everything You Need to Know About Primitivism’. DailyArt Magazine, 10 June 2020, https://www.dailyartmagazine.com/primitivism/.

Matt. ‘What Is Primitivism? Definition & Examples • Filmmaking Lifestyle’. Filmmaking Lifestyle, 1 Sept. 2022, https://filmlifestyle.com/what-is-primitivism/.

Music2. https://www.vanderbilt.edu/AnS/english/mwollaeger/Music.htm. Accessed 21 Feb. 2023.

‘Primitive Art | MoMA’. The Museum of Modern Art, https://www.moma.org/collection/terms/primitive-art. Accessed 20 Feb. 2023.

Primitivism. https://www.nationalgalleries.org/art-and-artists/glossary-terms/primitivism. Accessed 20 Feb. 2023.

'---'. Wikipedia, 10 Feb. 2023. Wikipedia, https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Primitivism&oldid=1138591184#Modernist_Primitivism.

Primitivism, Primitive Art: Definition, Characteristics. http://www.visual-arts-cork.com/history-of-art/primitivism.htm. Accessed 20 Feb. 2023.

SAINT PEDRO POVEDA COLLEGE. Primitivism & Neoclassicism. MUSIC 10 SAINT PEDRO POVEDA COLLEGE, 2023, https://povedamusic.wixsite.com/grade10/copy-of-music-expressionism.

Snyder, Carey. ‘Katherine Mansfield, Rhythm, and Metropolitan Primitivism’. The Journal of Modern Periodical Studies, vol. 5, no. 2, 2014, pp. 138–59. JSTOR, https://doi.org/10.5325/jmodeperistud.5.2.0138.

SOUND PATTERNS: Chapter 42. Primitivism. https://academic.udayton.edu/phillipmagnuson/soundpatterns/microcosms/primitivism.html. Accessed 21 Feb. 2023.

‘The Firebird’. Wikipedia, 13 Feb. 2023. Wikipedia, https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=The_Firebird&oldid=1139203607.

‘The Miraculous Mandarin’. Wikipedia, 6 June 2022. Wikipedia, https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=The_Miraculous_Mandarin&oldid=1091869539.

Wikipedia Contributors. ‘Bluebeard’s Castle’. Wikipedia, 10 Feb. 2023. Wikipedia, https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Bluebeard%27s_Castle&oldid=1138499014.

---. 'Mikrokosmos (Bartók)'. Wikipedia, 24 July 2022. Wikipedia, https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Mikrokosmos_(Bart%C3%B3k)&oldid=1100180888.